PSY 364 Human Development Lecture Notes Essay Example

PSY 364 Human Development Lecture Notes Essay Example PSY 364 Human Development Lecture Notes Essay PSY 364 Human Development Lecture Notes Essay Advancement: (+) or (- ) changes in life Patterns of progressions and change (incorporates development and decay) 3 different ways we grow: Partly like most people (naturally) Partly like others (little gathering experience) Ex: demise ofa parent Partly like no others Ex: certain youth experience BROAD DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT: Physical Cognitive (glass of water) Psychosocial (how we manage feelings) Definitions of improvement: Growth: physical changes from birth to development (natural changes) Aging: (+) and (- ) changes in the develop living being Maturation: organic unfurling of individual hereditary arrangement Learning: moderately lasting changes because of ecological encounters. Age grades: socially characterized age bunches Ex: kids, babies, older and so on.. Each accompanies its own benefit/duty Very progressive procedure Age standards: conduct desires for age bunches Ex: anticipate that youngsters should go to class Social clock: when things SHOULD be done Ex: having kids by a specific age. Off-time encounters are progressively troublesome not expecting (parent demise, high schooler pregnancy) Traditional methodology: broad change from birth to youthfulness, next to zero change in adulthood. Decrease in mature age. Present day life-range approach: formative change in youth just as adulthood. Gerontology: investigation of mature age and maturing. Prior to 1600: youngsters saw as small scale grown-ups Modern view: guiltless/need security Average future 1900s: 47 years Average future 2000: 77. 5 years Greater in whites by around 5 years Dont truly know why the psyche changes: BOTH! Nature versus sustain banter Nature: heredity development and qualities (science) Nurture: learning, experience, social impact and condition (world encounters) GENETICS AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACT: Tyron (1942) Experiment on labyrinth running in rodents Specifically reproduced 2 lines of rodents 1. Dull on how well they could run the labyrinth 2. Splendid kept condition the equivalent Raised posterity in a rich or less enhanced condition (wasnt much chance to figure out how labyrinths functioned less) Genetics thought: thought those from dull hereditary qualities line would essentially do more regrettable RESULTS: dull line did Just too in advanced condition (presently performed like brilliant rodents) ECOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: Bronfenbrenner: bioecological model (interactionist model) How nature and sustain collaborate to deliver improvement 1 . Microsystem: quick condition Ex: classes you go to and so on 2. Mesosystem: connections between Microsystems Ex: separate from guardians may influence how you do in school. 3. Exosystem: Social frameworks NOT DIRECT Ex: father had a terrible day at work, and kid feels this comfortable 4. Macrosystem: culture Chronosystem: changes happen in a time period 3 objectives of formative brain research: 1. Portrayal: Understanding what occurs during improvement Individual contrasts 2. Clarification: Typical and separately extraordinary improvement 3. Enhancement: How we can improve advancement Early Beginnings: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Theory of development Use of child accounts Kept records of how babies act Deliberately understanding contrast in youngsters Stanley Hall (1844-1924) Questionnaire approach with kids first to coin that pre-adulthood is a time of tempest and stress. Alfred Binet first IQ tests (Halls work to the following level) endeavor to get a steady gauge of childs insight jean Piaget (1896-1980) Focused on subjective speculations of improvement Modern life expectancy point of view: saltes (1987): 7 key suspicions of present day life range viewpoints Life long (continually experiencing change) Gain and misfortune and deep rooted pliancy Historical/social challenges, numerous impact Multidisciplinary contemplates Scientific methodology: Hypothesis: set of ideas and recommendations that depict and clarify some part of conduct. Theory: hypothetical expectations that can be tried by gathering information. Arbitrary example (versus accommodation): recognize all individuals from the bigger populace and select by arbitrary methods. Ex: hypothetically right way: List surprisingly from ages 70 in the whole world at that point select irregular individuals to examine. Ex: advantageous: Wars to do irregular inspecting yet a lot simpler Political shafts Data assortment: (3 techniques) 1 . Verbal-reports: talk with, surveys, tests Strengths: Gathers a lot of information Simple Direct answers Limitations: Interpretation of inquiries (age contrasts) Issues of trustworthiness and exactness Ability to peruse/grasp discourse Ex: cannot offer meeting to newborn child or little youngsters m e an ities to portray what they are thinking. 2. Conduct Observations: Naturalistic: Advantage: characteristic setting Disadvantage: conditions are not controlled Ex: pouring when concentrating in play areas Structured (Lab) Advantage: conditions controlled Disadvantage: hard to sum up to common settings 3. Psychophysiological strategies: inspect connection between physiological reactions and conduct Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): measure downpour movement during psychological errands Ex: what does the mind do when you recount to a story Heart rate: contrasted with benchmark, decline may show intrigue. EEG: mind wave movement, demonstrating excitement states; improvement recognition. Cortisol: Stress hormone STRENGTHS: most reactions are difficult to counterfeit (cerebrum movement, cortisol levels) WEAKNESS: a few reactions are difficult to decipher Ex: high intrigue is related with a more slow heartbeat, however so is a condition of quiet. Need various uniting measures: Verbal reports and physiological estimates Unique difficulties in formative exploration: Infants and small kids: Attention, guidance, responding to questions might be troublesome Elderly Adults: Possible tactile hindrances Discomfort being contemplated, tried Adult maturing research issue: Want to examine perusing cognizance in more seasoned grown-ups and contrast it with more youthful grown-ups Consider for try: Vision debilitations Slower What might you do to compare more youthful and more seasoned? Give more established grown-ups more opportunity to peruse the test Seeing the content: increment the text style or let members pick textual styles Does your strategy for likening impact your understanding? Going to appear to be counterfeit and made age impacts to liken for these various things Made perusing circumstance extremely odd The logical (test technique) 3 basic highlights! 1 . Control of free factor change things and perceive how this change impacts conduct ex: 2 diff cleansers, tide or other (change circumstance) to see the distinction. Diff. study procedures, better evaluation? . Irregular task of people to treatment conditions ex: medication assists individuals with showing signs of improvement from colds snappier, fake treatment and medication are appointed to Sep. Exploratory control what amount coaching and when. As opposed to Just asking how would you study? Think of a heap of irregular techniques, along these lines you can control what's going on in study. Semi Expe riment: No arbitrary task cannot tell if there is a causal connection between, just look at between the gatherings. Ex: can't tentatively control race, sexual orientation, handedness, morning versus ight individual. Race can't cause distinction in IQ Older grown-ups have more awful verbal memory than more youthful grown-ups multi year olds read more gradually than multi year olds. Involvement in language, and less training than multi year olds. Allocate multi year olds to loads of mentoring in language to get them both at a similar level to make no distinctions CAUSAL EFFECT IS EXPOSURE TO LANGUAGE The correlational Method (efficient relationship) contrasts = connection Determine if at least 2 factors are connected. Connection: a proportion of a relationship Can extend from +1. to - 1. 0 Positive: factors move a similar way Negative: factors move in inverse course (as one goes up the different goes down) No relationship connection is O. Can't set up a causal relationship. Age, assoc iate and time of estimation impacts: Age impacts: changes which happen because old enough (science) silver hair Cohort impacts: Born in one chronicled setting Changes because of contrasts in the public eye Disadvantage of cross-sectional plan. Time of estimation impacts: verifiable Take place at time of information assortment Detriment of longitudinal plan Developmental examination structures (CLS) 1 . Cross-sectional plans: +1 accomplices or age-bunches considered 1 time of testing Studying age contrasts at any one time Cohort impacts! (partner and age impacts are bewildered) Provides no information on singular improvement 2. Longitudinal plans: 1 companion +1 time of testing study changes across time in one accomplice Costly and tedious Practice ettects and specific weakening Age impacts and time or estimation are puzzled. Consecutive structures: A mix of cross-sectional and longitudinal plans Advantages of the two plans: Gives data about: Which age-related patterns are age impacts? Which age-related patterns are really accomplice impacts? Which age-related patterns are a consequence of verifiable occasions? Have introductory gathering and track them across time: 30, 40, 50 afterward select another gathering from an alternate partner at that point continue onward. End up with diff. ohorts to show various partners (timespans) companion impact Gender convictions will change in 2000 than in 1950s and so forth.. Restriction: difficult to do Cultural and sub social affectability in research: Variety of settings considered-associate impacts Culturally delicate strategies and estimations information needs to sum up what opulation you are keen on. SES especially significant Ethnocentrism: not planning concentrates just pertinent to their ethnicity Research Ethics: Must shield members from any physical or menta l mischief. Detainee/monitor study Everyone got truly into it, watches began to turn out to be ruthless. Concocted a wide range of disciplines. Science must be moral Informed assent: members need to know all dangers and advantages forthright. Questioning: enlighten members concerning the examination a short time later. Ex:

A Look at the Concerns Surrounding Internet Dependency

A Look at the Concerns Surrounding Internet Dependency The new influx of online innovation has seen the Internet assume an inexorably enormous position among society all through the previous scarcely any decades. The presentation of Internet-proficient individual gadgets, for example, mobiles telephones and tablets have conceded clients further access, activating Internet traffic to develop exponentially. Because of this colossal social move towards the on the web, contemporary issues have showed up on both an intrapersonal and relational scale. Reports during the 1990’s, when the impacts of the Internet heightened, proposed that some online clients were getting dependent similarly that others may get dependent on medications, liquor or betting. Notwithstanding, as has been seen since this underlying visualization, Internet fixation has demonstrated to be substantially more testing and dubious to sort than elective substance-based addictions. When all is said in done terms, Internet fixation can be portrayed as over the top distra ctions, practices or desires with respect to PC and Internet utilize that prompts misery or impedance (Shaw Black, 2008). This examination survey will recognize significant issues in Internet compulsion, just as diagram the significant contentions, for example, the introduction of Internet enslavement as an idea, tests established to gauge it, general sections explicit habit, dependence on gaming and the manifestations of inordinate Internet use. Generous research in the fixation field had been cultivated all through the twentieth century, notwithstanding, because of the overall novelty of Internet habit, examine that plainly plots the phases of obtaining and the results of this sort of enslavement are less unmistakable. First notices of PC fixation came through episodic reports in the late 1970’s, explicitly through the media, with everyday terms, for example, ‘computer addicts’ and ‘machine-code junkies’ being utilized to portray substantial PC clients. The overall population generally acknowledged that manifestations of PC enslavement incorporated the disability of mental turn of events and the breakdown of social connections. A couple of scholastics took an incomplete enthusiasm for the field all through the 1980’s, anyway genuine research was not directed until Shotton (1991) participated in an examination to additionally break down this issue. Through a progression of meetings and surveys, Shotton (1991) found that the impacts of PC enslavement were significantly less extreme than past writing and the media had proposed, refering to consistent reasons that clarify why people take part in cooperating with a machine so widely. Shotton (1991) accepted that independent individuals who got some distance from human connections could discover friendship through figuring. Albeit progressive, Shotton’s inquire about turned out to be rapidly less appropriate when the Internet rose to acclaim in the mid-1990’s radically changing the capacity and ease of use of PCs. At the 104th yearly gathering of the American Psychological Association in 1996, Young (1998) introduced a paper on the development of another clinical issue known as Internet habit. Youthful changed the visualization in the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1995) for Pathological Gambling into a concise poll alluded to as the Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire (IADQ) utilized as a screening instrument for addictive Internet use where members who scored on at least 5 were considered as dependant Internet clients. Youthful showed that dependant Internet clients spent a normal of 38.5 hours out of every week on the web, contrasted with 4.9 hours for non-dependant clients. Moreover, the examination outlined that non-dependant clients saw the Internet as an important wellspring of data and a mode for individual and business correspondence. This appears differently in relation to dependant clients, who considered the To be as a huge piece of their lives, empowering them t o meet and associate with new individuals, with numerous regularly inclining toward their online companions to their genuine connections. The investigation compared the outcomes of Internet dependence on that of different addictions, refering to scholastic issues, work intricacies, misshaped rest designs relationship challenges, and forswearing of utilization as side effects of extreme Internet use. Youthful gives a system to additionally investigate on addictive Internet use, presuming that numerous people showed motivation control trouble like neurotic betting or liquor misuse. The proposition set forth by Young (1998) started a lot of discussion among scholastics which has proceeded right up 'til the present time. Facial hair and Wolf (2001) fought Young’s guarantee, contending that her rules for Internet compulsion were excessively unbending and abstract for self-announced measures. They recommended that for a person to show Internet habit, they should meet five important standards, and one of three discretionary models, both getting from Young’s unique poll. Facial hair and Wolf proceed to scrutinize the term ‘Internet addiction’ inside and out, clarifying that over the top Internet use can't be characterized as a fixation, as it doesn't bring about the entirety of the side effects and practices related with ordinary addictions, for example, physical withdrawal. The debate encompassing this term is presently bolder than the hours of days of old with the Internet’s expanding hang on society. Starcevic and Aboujaoude (2016 ) immovably remain against the analysis ‘Internet addiction’ refering to certain issues with its utilization. They contend against the term from an exacting perspective, refering to that there is no proof that dependence on the Internet as a medium exists, it is just a facilitator for other social addictions. Moreover, and logically in this way, the Internet is too dubious a term as it alludes to the boundless assortment of practices that could be performed on the web. In that capacity, the term ‘Internet addiction’ ought to be supplanted by increasingly explicit practices. The finishing up contention by Starcevic and Aboujaoude (2016) in the past section takes care of into one of the significant debates encompassing Internet dependence, where two ways of thinking have risen. The summed up see accepts that Internet enslavement justifies its own grouping as another mental issue, though the particular view separates an individual’s Internet use and characterizes their fixation concerning explicit online exercises. After numerous long periods of discussion, an advanced report by Montag et al. (2015) set out to analyze whether it is proper to separate among summed up and concentrated Internet fixation. Members from Europe and Asia finished two summed up scales (IAT and GPIUS-2) and a specific scale created to quantify four spaces of web use; video gaming, shopping, interpersonal organizations and sex entertainment. The aftereffects of the investigation exhibited that there are without a doubt explicit types of Internet dependence and that enormous pi eces of both summed up and explicit habit don't cover. Be that as it may, this isn't accurate on account of interpersonal organization compulsion as there was a significant cover among it and summed up Internet fixation. The writers contend this might be on the grounds that Facebook doesn't exist without the web, in contrast to the next indicated areas. Laconi, Tricard and Chabrol (2015) additionally took a distinct fascination for the connection between summed up Internet fixation and specific web compulsion. This examination had members complete a variety of scales identifying with explicit Internet utilizes (betting, sex, video watching, correspondence, data chasing, gaming, work, shopping) and summed up Internet use. The investigation established that out of 378 members only 29 indicated side effects of summed up Internet enslavement, as opposed to 170 demonstrating explicit Internet habit, provoking the creators to require the differentiation between the two. Probably the greatest disclosure for Internet habit as a determination came as of late when the DSM-5 (2013) presented a non-substance fixation without precedent for its history. Web gaming issue was included Section 3 of the DSM-5 after cautious survey of more than 250 distributions here because of the noteworthy measure of research as of late and the outcomes of the condition. Before the DSM-5, a significant number of tests were utilized to inspect Internet enslavement, producing no unmistakable indicative rules. One of the more mainstream tests was proposed by Young (1998) in her unique paper and known as the Internet Addiction Test (IAT). This scale added to the IADQ as it contained 20 things estimated on a Likert scale. Its interior consistency has been analyzed among an assortment of settings, the vast majority of which have demonstrated to be sure (Widyanto McMurran, 2004). In any case, its factor structure has been conflictingly announced in various settings testing its uniqu e unidimensional plan (Lai et al., 2013). Through an orderly survey of 68 epidemiological investigations on Internet enslavement, Kuss et al. (2014) detailed that upwards of twenty-one unique scales were created between the IAT in 1998 to the DSM-5 of every 2013 trying to inspect an individual’s dependence on the Internet, each test with their own issues. Petry et al. (2014) examine the consideration of Internet gaming issue in the DSM-5 by collecting universal specialists to accomplish agreement about surveying this issue in a variety of settings as characterized by the nine models in the DSM-5. Pre-occupation alludes to the individual pondering gaming while at the same time playing as well as while they are not playing. Withdrawal alludes to specific side effects that develop when one can't start gaming, or when one is attempting to retain from gaming. Resistance means that an individual wants to game for stretched out timeframes to feel adequate fervor. The fourth basis is fruitless endeavors to stop or diminish gaming. An individual with Internet gaming issue may likewise jut a lo

January Book Giveaway From BookRiot.com

January Book Giveaway From BookRiot.com It’s that time again! On the first Monday of every month, we give away 10 books from the Book Riot Mailbag (well, the second Monday this time around because of the holidays). This month weve got a few rad books in translation (including Guadalupe Nettels  The Body Where I Was Born,  which I cant stop talking about), a much-buzzed-about new feminist essay collection, and more! Just fill out the form below to enter our book giveaway: Entries are open internationally and will be accepted until 11:59pm, Sunday, January 17th. Winner will be randomly selected. Loading

Homeric Heroes The Heroic Hero - 1249 Words

In accordance with temperance, battle is the most important aspect of Homeric Heroes. It is on a battlefield that heroes gain glory for fighting, prizes for their accomplishments, and honor for their actions. However, hero he may be, Achilles â€Å"was not to be seen in council, that arena for glory, nor in battle† (Book 1, 518-519). He was â€Å"throwing his heroism away† by not taking part in the event that made people heroes. Prior to this, Achilles was a well-recognized hero. Goddesses said â€Å"when godlike Achilles used to enter battle the Trojans wouldn’t so much as leave their gates out of fear of what his spear could do† (Book 5, 840-842). He was among the greatest of heroes and he was turning away from what made him that hero. He was†¦show more content†¦He assured the pain of losing a battle was the worse pain a hero could endure, saying to his wife, â€Å"All that pain is nothing to what I will feel for you, when some bronze-armored Greek leads you away in tears, on your first day of slavery† (Book 6, 477-479). Hector wanted to win because as a hero, glory and honor were best achieved through winning battles. Achilles would have much rather gone home to his family than win the battle. The standard Homeric hero was characterized by glory, honor, and justice, all of which was achieved through winning or fighting in battles. When Agamemnon recognized he was losing the battle, he sent messengers to convince Achilles to join the battle. He offered him numerous prizes and gifts. These gifts were perceived as necessary elements for a hero entering battle. Without them, their level of honor decreased immensely. They said to him, â€Å"Come while there are gifts, while the Achaeans will still honor you as if you were a god. But if you go into battle without any gifts, your honor will be less, save us or not† (Book 9, 619-623). Despite their efforts, Achilles denied their gifts, boldly stating, â€Å"My honor comes from Zeus† (Book 9, 625). This suggested he did not need gifts to feel honored. He already had honor, and he did not seek more but maintain his already achieved honor. He did not need gifts to be a hero either. The gods had made him a hero (meaning they gave him skills that achieved him honor in the past), and that wasShow MoreRelatedEssay about Heroic Code in the Iliad and the Odyssey979 Words   |  4 PagesHeroic Code in the Iliad and the Odyssey In Websters Dictionary, a hero is defined as a person noted for courageous acts or nobility of purpose, especially if this individual has risked or sacrificed his life. In the Iliad and the Odyssey, the code which administers the conduct of the Homeric heroes is a straightforward idea. The aim of every hero is to achieve honor. Throughout the Iliad and the Odyssey, different characters take on the role of a hero. Honor is essential to the HomericRead MoreHeroes Are The People In The Society That We Admire For1048 Words   |  5 PagesHeroes are the people in the society that we admire for or venerated for the courage they portray, noble qualities, and the outstanding achievements associated with them. In every community, anyone who attains the hero status, he/she creates ideals and ideas that the community creates and strives for. Heroes are individuals who assist in shaping the culture of the community they are associated with in the literature, the community also shapes the h eroes too. 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Analysis Of Nervous Conditions - 1494 Words

Nervous Conditions draws much focus on the lives of women living the impacts of colonialism in a traditional African society in Zimbabwe. These women struggle to assert themselves in a patriarchal society while at the same time it speaks about the history of a country that has been under colonialization. The female characters in the stories struggle in their lives to find ways to deal with their own situation; however, this essay emphasizes African women’s situation in both the colonized and/or patriarchal societies as exemplified by the female characters: Tambu and Nyasha. Tambu leaves her country because of its inequality and male biases so she can seek freedom and gain liberation. Nyasha resisters and defies patriarchy, as manifested by†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Nervous Conditions† narrates the harsh experiences of women in Africa who happen to be subjected to the patriarchal system and to the colonized regime. In Imperial leather, Anne McClintock indicates that, â€Å"colonized women, before the intrusions of imperial rule, were invariably disadvantaged within their societies, in ways that gave the colonial reordering of their sexual and economic labor very different outcome from those of colonized men† (6).Women’s experience of colonization by this sense is enormously different from that of men and their experience of colonization upholds influences on women’s life, relations, status and roles within their own imperial societies. The colonized women must â€Å"negotiate not only the imbalances of their relations with their own men but also the baroque and violent array of hierarchal rules and restrictions that structured their relations with imperial men and women† Clintock p.6). Exploitation is the colonizers logo and women in this novel are being manipulated for the benefit of the patriarchal society in the same manner the colonizer deploys the colonized for his own means. Traditional and cultural practices reinforce the power of men in African societies and are often embraced without any questioning. Tambu, is denied access to education because she is a girl. Tambu’s father’s refusal to further her education is influenced by cultural assumptions, which consider education to be a male preserve. Tambu’sShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Nervous Conditions 1202 Words   |  5 PagesNervous Conditions written by Zimbabwean author Tsitsi Dangarembga is a rather complex novel that communicates a plethora of implicit and explicit messages about complexities surrounding sex, class and gender. It is a story told from the perspective of Tambudzai(Tambu), an impoverished teen whom, as a result of the passing of her brother Nhamo, gets the opportunity to receive an education under the roof of her Uncle Babamukuru. While living with her uncle Babamukuri, the headmaster of the missionRead MoreNervous Conditions Analysis3886 Words   |  16 Pages  Nervous Conditions is a novel by Zimbabwean author Tsitsi Dangarembga, first published in the United Kingdom in 1988. The semi-autobiographical novel focuses on the story of a Rhodesian family in post-colonial Rhodesia during the 1960s. It attempts to illustrate the dynamic themes of race, class, gender, and cultural change during the post-colonial conditions of present-day Zimbabwe. The title is taken from the introduction by Jean-Paul Sartre to Frantz Fanons The Wretched of the Earth. Plot summaryRead MoreNervous Conditions Analysis3875 Words   |  16 Pages  Nervous Conditions is a novel by Zimbabwean author Tsitsi Dangarembga, first published in the United Kingdom in 1988. The semi-autobiographical novel focuses on the story of a Rhodesian family in post-colonial Rhodesia during the 1960s. It attempts to illustrate the dynamic themes of race, class, gender, and cultural change during the post-colonial conditions of present-day Zimbabwe. The title is taken from the introduction by Jean-Paul Sartre to Frantz Fanons The Wretched of the Earth. Plot summaryRead MoreAnalysis Of The Novel Nervous Conditions 1258 Words   |  6 PagesIn the novel Nervous Conditions, Tsitsi Dangarembga explores the concepts of power and oppression. Speaking up about oppression can liberate a person, so the people in charge do not want the oppressed to speak up. In Nervous Conditions, males have much more dominance in life than females. Maiguru, Nyasha, and Lucia all attempt to stand up for themselves against oppression, with little success. 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The influence that it has is innovation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) division of the ANS, and can include changes to skin conductance, heart rate, blood pressureRead MoreSurgeons: Surgery and Surgical Critical Care850 Words   |  4 Pagesdied. In this case, both a coroner and a medical examiner may be licensed to determine cause of death. In cases of violence, where a crime must be established, but has not caused a death, a medical examiner may assist in rape examinations, analysis of blood, analysis of DNA evidence, and thorough examination of the body to document injury. Usually we are used to seeing a medical examiner in a court setting, where he or she can describe cause of death or establish DNA evidence. When information aboutRead MoreImperialism In Frantz Fanons The Wretched Of The Earth1424 Words   |  6 Pagesthat allowed the establishment of Western imperial hegemony over the Orient. In his book The Wretched of the Earth, Frantz Fanon specifically articulates on the â€Å"nervous condition† of native intellectuals and their struggle to cope with their hybrid identities in a postcolonial society. Jean-Paul Sartre’s â€Å"nervous condition† (Fanon 20), similarly, touches upon the concept of hybridity that is articulated by Said, and explains the alienated position of the native who occupies multipleRead MoreThe Importance Of Walking Under Steady State Conditions1288 Words   |  6 Pagesof activity of lower extremities muscles and speed. Several studies in the past have looked into this relationship for walking under steady-state conditions. In this section we review these studies and their findings and we highlight limitations of their approaches and discuss the suggestions to expand the analysis to walking under transient conditions. Hof et al. [21] were one of the first groups to measure surface electromyograms (EMGs) from subjects walking at different speeds. Five speeds were

Themes in the Merchant of Venice Free Essays

The Cyclical Nature of Hatred and Vengeance By Darina Gaievska Love and hatred, happiness and misery, excitement and lethargy – all of these emotions are inherited to the human nature. Hatred fits in among one of the strongest human feelings; it is a seed that engenders vengeance. In the Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice, these two inextricably bound terms are portrayed unequivocally. We will write a custom essay sample on Themes in the Merchant of Venice or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are three main reasons why hatred was such a focal ingredient to the play: the Anti-Semitism, the unacceptability of usury and the personal altercations between the focal characters First and foremost, the tensions between the play’s protagonist and antagonist take place primarily due to the cultural notion of Anti-Semitism. In spite of Venice being the multicultural and hence multi-religious trade city, the discrimination of the Jewish people was yet apprehensible. Throughout The Merchant of Venice Antonio keeps referring to Shylock as â€Å"The Jew†, a term that was so derogatory at the time. Although there isn’t much use of direct anti-Semitic slurs, the enmity towards the subculture still lurked in the passages of the play. When Shylock slyly alluded to Jacob from Genesis, justifying his practice of usury, Antonio responded dismissively, saying that â€Å"the devil can cite Scripture for his purpose†. By calling Shylock â€Å"the devil† due to Shylock’s faith. In the merchant’s eyes, Jews were traitors, who deceived the Christ. Although Shylock shows his awareness of the Christian religion, Antonio does not respect him more; arguing that in spite of the knowledge he possesses â€Å"The Jew† is nevertheless a disbeliever. The second reason due to which hatred skulks throughout the play is the un-acceptance of usury. During the Elizabethan era, Jews were not allowed to have any mercantile business, making usury, the practice of lending money on interest, the only source of profit to them. Antonio proves his negative attitude towards usury by lending money with no interest. Shylock, on the other hand, feels indignant of Antonio’s actions: â€Å"He lends out money gratis and brings down The rate of usance here with us in Venice. Their different views on lending nurture the characters’ animosity and foreshadow the conflict that arises later in the play. Last but not least, hatred is presented in a play in both the ambiguous way and the personal one. It is quite clear that the great tensions between â€Å"The Jew† and the Merchant are the focal point of the entire plot. Antonio’s disrespectful actions towards Shylock are incited by his anti-Semitic ideology. Needless to say, th ose actions are the main reason for Shylocks hatred, so strong and unceasing, towards his offender. It almost seems that if Antonio was inflicting his enemy’s vengeance knowingly, continuing to practice his disrespectful behavior. Shylock justifies his thirst for revenge in act three: â€Å"The villainy you teach me I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction†. â€Å"The Jew† argues that if Christians (specifically Antonio) treat him as if he were â€Å"a dog† hence showing that they are hypocritical when contradicting the concept of mercy, which is so deeply enshrined in their religion. He blames the Christians for â€Å"teaching† him cruelty, and even promises to excel his masters. To sum up, the recurring hatred is a cycle that comes out of the culture’s prejudices. It is one of the main themes in the play. Hatred and animosity, caused by the anti-Semitism, unacceptability of usury and disrespect, are the inciters of the conflict between Shylock and Antonio. Without them, the play would be dull and boring, because emotions are the ones to spice up the play, making the interaction between characters more fervid. How to cite Themes in the Merchant of Venice, Papers

Hispanic Essay Example For Students

Hispanic Essay The Latin community in the area which I reside is weak. This is evident in the fact that less Hispanics are involved in community affairs than members of other ethnicitys. It would be rather interesting to be able to know what goes into government policy making. The enthusiasm that I would put forth on this topic would be exemplary. The experience that qualifies me to partake in this institute is my involvement in SALSA (Spanish And Latino Student Association), as well as the fact that I am an aware, young, Hispanic male who sees what really goes on in the Latin community. It would be quite educational to learn what occurs during the process of the making of government policies which greatly affect our community. Perhaps if more teenagers were given the opportunity to be educated on these matters the community could be bettered. This would improve the community by enriching the lives of youths and pointing them in a direction to work for the people, not against them. The work as well as effort that would be put forth by me would have to be exemplary. This is so because one of my goals in life is to better myself so that I may in turn better my community, especially the Hispanic community. This is an opportunity that I have been waiting for to arise. This is my chance to make a difference. The experiences that qualify me to take part in this institutes affairs are that I am an active member in the SALSA group, as well as the fact that I am a young, Hispanic male who sees how the Hispanic community works. My involvement in the SALSA club has given me a way to reach out to the Hispanic students in my school, in hopes that if I can inform these young individuals about how to better the community, as well as teach them a sense of self pride in themselves. Then hopefully when they go out into their towns they will also try to make a difference. The Hispanic community where I live is very UN-unified. This upsets me greatly because we as a people need to be involved and unified so that we may better ourselves as well as the future generations who will only learn from example of what we do right now. The Hispanic community is rather weak now. However this does not have to be so in the future. We, the Hispanics as a whole, must rise up and join our brethren to better ourselves.

Cloud Computing

Abstract Over the recent times, Cloud computing has been a growing concept not just for IT (Information Technology) specialists, but also for scholars and researchers in other genres like business (Muglia, 2009, p. 2-4). Amrhein and Quint (2009) state that this is majorly based on the increased relevance of cloud computing in a wide range of organizations.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Cloud Computing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Kontio (2009), big companies like IBM, Microsoft and Amazon are amongst the pioneers that front-line the list of people and companies and individuals who embrace the importance of cloud computing in accentuating their endeavors. In spite of this pronounced success and ever growing dominance in the world of technologies; Otey (2010) points out that there has also been some slowly—but surely—upcoming group of skeptics who have strongly voiced out t heir negative concerns in regard to cloud computing. The legibility of their concerns are still to be scholarly confirmed since cloud computing is a technological advancement that was established recently. Nonetheless, if an ultimate progress is to be enhanced for the many organizations and people who currently utilize this technology, as well as for the prospected users; it is paramount for viable statutes, fitting policies, suitable regulations and feasibility strategies to be relevantly put in place by the concerned parties (Boss et al., 2007, p. 1-3). In essence, it is based on the above issues that this research paper is going to expansively highlight the concept of cloud computing while detailing the progress that has been made by various organizations to this regard. A brief way of how this will be done is in the introductory summary below. Introduction Principally, this research paper specifically focuses on broadly highlighting the intricacies of cloud computing. Moreover, general reference to other vital concepts which are related to cloud computing is concurrently done. Having said that; it is inherent to state that this paper will be orderly presented as follows.Advertising Looking for research paper on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To start us off, the paper will give an inclusive and representative introduction into cloud computing. After that, we will delve into the characteristics of cloud computing which will then be closely followed by cloud computing services, how to manage a cloud, cloud organization standard, the benefits of cloud computing as well as it limitations/ challenges. Finally, a conclusion will be given starting by offering an insight into the future of cloud computing and how individuals—and organizations alike—can smoothly transition to it. The conclusion will then be finalized by giving a brief—but concise—evaluation of how we can choos e the right cloud computing service provider will also be done. As a crucial note; the authoritative opinions, verifiable facts, logical arguments, scholarly notions and intellectual suggestions in this paper are fundamentally backed up by reliable articles and books written by technology bigwigs. These scholarly resources are primarily used in order to facilitate and ensure conciseness, factualness and objectivity throughout the paper. Overview of Cloud Computing Several definitions have been advanced by variant scholars in giving the befitting meaning of cloud computer. As a matter of fact, a majority of these definitions have been focused on numerous issues since cloud computing is a broad technological area. Most of the definitions put forward by these scholars are right—in their own respect. Documenting all of these definitions is impossible so only a few representative definitions are outlined below. Preliminarily; Otey (2010) states that cloud computing is a general te rm used to refer to an internet-based service which seeks to provide some form of essential computer-related service to an individual or organization.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Cloud Computing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To further his definition, Otey asserts that the specific types of services in cloud computing vary widely from one user to the other. This is the reason there are many cloud computing services which are currently in place with other expected in the future (Chaganti, 2008). Moreover, IBM (n.d.) defines cloud computing as an important set of computing solutions which allow its users to use technology in accessing or sharing information in virtual or physical in form. In doing so, the access or sharing of information is usually occurs via LAN Local area Network, WAN (Wide Area Network) or direct connection to a particular server (Anderson et al., 2010). The above definition is supported by other scholars who also believe that cloud computing is concerned with anything the delivery of hosted services using the internet. Lastly, Lovell (n.d., p. 4) articulates that cloud computing simply describes â€Å"highly scalable computing resources† which are basically provided as external services (through the internet) on a â€Å"pay-as-you-go basis.† According to Lovell, the term â€Å"cloud† is normally used metaphorically by technologists to refer to the internet—which, fundamentally, provides a viable forum for networking and exchange of vital computer resources (p. 4-5). The following diagram gives a brief representation of the anatomy of the cloud. A more detailed architectural diagram of the vital aspects of cloud computing can be found in Appendix I. Anatomy of the CloudAdvertising Looking for research paper on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Amrhein, D., Quint, S. (2009). Cloud computing for the enterprise: part 1: capturing the cloud. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/websphere/techjournal/0904_amrhein/0904_amrhein.html History of Cloud Computing According to Strickland (n.d.), the name cloud computing was historically inspired by the cloud-like symbol used to represent the concept in diagrams as well as flowcharts. Despite the fact that cloud computing has become extensively pronounced in the Information and technology world that we currently live in; Kontio (2009) reports that cloud computing is a recent technological inception. This is, in fact, the major reason a majority of the components and constituents of cloud computing heavily rely on current technologies and can barely function in their absence (IBM, n.d.). However, it is remarkable to state that cloud computing heavily borrows from traditional methods of computing and, more often than not, works interdependently with them. Probably, this mi ght be the reason some people tend to confuse it with related technologies like grid computing, utility computing and autonomic computing among many others (Miller, 2008; and Anderson et al., 2010). So what, really, are the differences between cloud computing and related technologies? According to Myerson (2009), grid computing differs from cloud computing, in that; it deals with loose virtually networked computers so as to perform large tasks. This is in opposition to cloud computing which operates with a compactly networked system and is limited when performing large tasks (Miller, 2008; Otey, 2010). As for Utility computing, the focus tends to be metered computing of resources—which is based on the concept and technology used in traditional public utilities like electricity (Brynjolfsson et al., 2010, p. 32-34; and Anderson et al., 2010). As was partly aforementioned, Cloud computing relies on modern technologies like the integration of hardware and software to create a vi able platform for it to perform its functions. In spite of this difference, utility computing is normally considered a key tenet in cloud computing. This is based on the fact that some of the concepts in utility computing are used by technologists in cloud computing (Otey, 2010). Other technologies that are reportedly interdependent with cloud computing include Client-server model, Peer-to-peer sharing and Service-oriented computing among many others (Anderson et al., 2010). As a key note; several examples exist to illustrate other similarities as well as differences between cloud computing and other technologies. That, however, is just a side-issue since many organizations today have found ways of incorporating cloud computing and other technologies. According to Anderson et al. (2010), focus should therefore be on finding ways of improving this interdependency rather than merely outlining the similarities and differences. Traditional Computing and Cloud Computing According to Armb rust et al. (2010, p. 54-57.) traditional business applications have always been quite complex, time-wasting, monetarily costly and somewhat inefficient in the technologically advanced world that we currently. Many other technological experts have been able to voice out similar sentiments against traditional computing with the additional complaints including being difficult to install, configure, assess, run, update and ensure their security. Durkee (2010, p. 62-66) states that it is based on the above challenges that cloud computing was established; not only to overcome the challenges, but also to provide better prospects for organizations that rely on computing for their survival. Even though cloud computing has been around for a few years, it has—to a great extent—overcome the challenges of traditional computing and has even provided a better environment for IT users. In essence, this is the reason, like a bonfire, its heat is increasingly spreading to many organiza tions (Anderson et al., 2010). Of course there are a number of challenges for cloud computing as well as some positive aspects of traditional computing (as will be exemplified later); but as a widely-acknowledged fact, cloud computing is relatively advantageous for organizations when compared to the traditional methods of computing. These advantages are majorly based on its characteristics which are outlined hereafter in brief. Characteristic of cloud computing The process of cloud computing is normally done differently by different people. It is for this reason, according to Chaganti (2008), that cloud computing has many varying characteristics. Fundamentally, all the characteristics of cloud computing usually revolve around this concept of unspecified cloud-like shapes and either function to enhance this concept or supplement it. These characteristics, according to Otey (2010), Kontio (2009), Strickland (n.d.); Cloud Computing (n.d.) Anderson et al., (2010), Wittow and Buller (201 0, p. 2-6) include: Customers only pay for what they use and ignore the servers that are not benefit to them. Since some data centers run are huge and are shared by many people at the same time; the cost of infrastructure passed on to customers become lower. Customers are not obliged to buy (or even know) the ultimate capacity required during peak times. In other words, cloud computing automatically allows for scaling of available resources of the application being used. Cloud computing allows for automatic allocation (as well as de-allocation) of things like CPU, Storage and network bandwidth among many other important resources. Customers do not own physical infrastructure instead they get it through renting from third-party service providers. Servers are rarely left idle based on the concept of sharing computing power amongst various tenants. This also improves utilization rates. A good number of cloud computing services ascribe to the concept of utility computing. Many cloud co mputing services tend to function best with small and medium organizations since they rarely have the capacity to withstand the huge costs and expenditure of large organizations. Types of Cloud Computing Public Cloud In other instances, public cloud is normally referred to as external cloud. In essence, it refers to the conventionally accepted meaning of cloud computing, which is: an ever-changing—yet scalable—method whereby virtual resources are provided over the internet by a third-party provider. Eventually, this improves the distribution of resources and also helps in reducing the costs of getting certain important utilities. Popular public cloud providers include Amazon and EC2 (Anderson et al., 2010) Private Cloud A private cloud (also commonly referred to as Corporate Cloud or Internal Cloud) refers to a proprietary computing architecture where hosting services are done on networks privately. More often than not, the costs of private clouds tend to be relativel y expensive when compared to other like public cloud. It is for this reason that private clouding is mostly done by large companies or individuals who are financially well-off. Some critics have been able to come out strongly to oppose this type of cloud computing since some organizations surrender their networks to be managed by these private firms. In effect, this not only opens a door for many dangerous possibilities for the organization, but it also encourages laziness in terms of organizations or individuals not being able to manage their own clouds—as is recommended by technology experts. Hybrid Cloud Just from the name, hybrid cloud essentially refers to the type of cloud computing where organizations or individuals incorporate the usage both public (external) and private (internal) cloud. According to most researchers; this type of cloud computing is predicted to become the most dominant way of computing based on its current skyrocketing usage. Of course there is the challenge of balancing the two types of cloud computing, but its many benefits make its usage worth every penny spent on it. Cloud Computing Services According to Maitland (2010), different organizations look for different things when selecting a cloud computing service that will help in furthering organizational goals as well as improving their networking avenues. This is the reason behind the availability of variant cloud computing services. Some of the major services here include: Software as a Service (SaaS) This refers to a software distribution model whereby software applications are orderly made available to customers via the internet. Some of its advantages include: easy accessibility form anywhere, instant scalability, good security during deployment over the internet. Its major criticism is that it can cause harm, just like proprietary software, since it limits user control as it does not allow users to modify the software. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) IaaS is a provision model whereby an organization outsources equipment that can be used to help support operations like networking, storage and good hardware functionality. Its advantages and disadvantages are more-or-less similar to SaaS with the main difference being that, focus here is on infrastructure while in SaaS, the focus in on software Maitland (2010). Platform as a Service (PaaS) PaaS involves the virtual-server renting of OS (Operating Systems), hardware, storage capacities and even network capacities over the internet. Chiefly, PaaS is an outgrowth of SaaS. Its advantages include: OS features can be changed thus gives control to users, easy for variant users of different regions to work collectively and services can be easily obtained from diverse sources. PaaS is normally criticized for the fact that sometimes; the flexibility of offerings is not able to meet the ever-changing needs of various users (Maitland 2010). Computer as a Service (CaaS) CaaS is not a common service, but its relevance has made it increasingly talked about over the recent times. It generally refers to a dynamic management service which enables users to make real-time changes. The advantages here include ease in control, heightened reliability and increased security for users. Its disadvantages are more-or-less similar to those of Paas and SaaS. Storage as a Service (DaaS) This is the least outspoken service amongst the ones already mentioned. DaaS performs its operations by abstracting data storage behind certain service interfaces and then delivering it when demanded. It has similar advantages to CaaS and PaaS with its major limitation being its inability to operate over some interfaces (Maitland, 2010; and Anderson et al., 2010). Managing the Cloud The following ways can be used to manage a cloud. Primarily, most clouds tend to be complex thus being very involving to users (Myerson, 2010). In order to avoid this, we should find ways of simplifying them—especially on th e layers and interfaces (Jones 2008). Moreover, in order to improve networking; we can initiate the concept of cloud peering where networks are peered in the same way it is done over the internet. This will greatly improve the sharing of resources (Metzler, 2009; and Anderson et al., 2010). Again, system managers should establish ways in which data can be adequately monitored, changed and shared amongst users (Owens, 2010, p. 47-50). This will solve the common problems that are normally caused by poor data management. Finally, good and secure storage facilities (servers) should be put in place by organizations in order to limit security breaches (Cloud Computing in the Midmarket, 2010; Boss et al., p. 2-3). Cloud Organization Standard According to Otey (2010), there is no universally accepted way of standardizing cloud organization. The best way of having an effective and good standard therefore is by simply tailoring ways of having fitting services while observing cloud management strategies (IBM, n.d.; and Armbrust et al., 2010, p. 51-54). Benefits of Cloud Computing A good number of the benefits of cloud computing have been highlighted in the writings above. However, in summary, cloud computing, according to Anderson et al., (2010), Jones (2008), Lovell (n.d., p. 7-9), Kontio (2009), Cloud Computing (n.d.) offers the following advantages: It reduces costs on capital expenditure since customers can avoid spending large amounts of money by installing their infrastructure using the cloud model. It greatly cuts on administrative costs since management of the organization is streamlined and there is a balance between centralization and decentralization of duties. It encourages positive competition amongst individuals and organizations. Quality service is hugely guaranteed within a timely framework There is ease in the access of applications from anywhere at any given time. It provides for a disaster management system through backup and recovery tools. There is sufficient technical support for most users throughout the day. It is highly scalable and flexible thus offering many advantages to its customers. Users are entitled to getting reduction in costs based on the economies of scale. In other words, the more the users, the lesser the costs for each individual/organization. It provides for fitting management of data and resources through efficient data entry, manipulation and data storage facilities. Issues and Challenges/ Limitations of implementing cloud computing Just like the benefits, most of the challenges of cloud computing have been highlighted in the above writings. Nevertheless, these issues, according to Anderson et al., 2010), Otey (2010), Zhen (2008), Maitland (2010) and Durkee (2010, p. 63-67) can be briefly represented as follows: In spite of the huge reliability of the internet; there are numerous occasions that it becomes problematic thus limiting any form of communication, networking or even trade. This issue of occasi onal unavailability of the internet is also a major issue with websites and servers which tend to have occasional downtimes and most cloud computing applications cannot work well with low-speed connections. The storage and security capacity of vendors vary from one place to another. This makes it difficult for one to be assured of a good computing and also in choosing vendors. In close relations to this, storing confidential information or data of one company in servers owned by other companies can sometimes be risky if security breaches occur in the companies storing the information or data. The reportedly rising figures of cybercrimes pose a threat to internet users. Essentially, most cloud computing users and managers rely heavily on the internet. Issues such as cybercrimes are, therefore, of great concern to such users and managers. Shared infrastructures—which are the basis of cloud—tend to slow down activities. When sharing resources, such as infrastructures, wit h other customers, the performance may be reduced, especially at peak times Despite being cost-effective in the long run, cloud computing is quite costly based on the need to buy new technologies and equipment. Also, since it is still a new technology, several changes and modifications are still being made on clouds computing applications and these changes come with extra-costs. Integrating cloud computing—especially on organizations that still have the old computing systems is quite costly, hectic and difficult for many users. The issue of interoperability—where organizations can easily move their data from one cloud computing company to another, like in situations when they have found a better vendor—has been reported to be challenging, in spite of the immense progress that have been made by some companies. This problem with interoperability is also witnessed in terms of companies that would love to use different clouds platforms to manage different applicatio ns Some complains have also been reported in regard to manageability of infrastructure. To this regard, it is said that despite the existence of great IaaS/PaaS in today’s technology market, there are some raw platforms and infrastructure that have limited management capabilities thus not serving the users as intended. An example of such challenges is in Amazon EC2 who claim to be elastic and have auto-scaling capabilities when reports on the ground indicate the exact opposite Monitoring of performance and availability of things like transactions and disk IO’s. For some cloud computing companies, monitoring such issues are greatly challenging. Nonetheless, a good number of companies have been reported to improve in this area with provisions being made for the monitoring of virtual machines by the concerned management. The newness of cloud computing means that it is yet to be modified to a point whereby it is fully flexible as it should. For this reason, traditional app lications which have been in place for quite a while tend to have an upper hand in flexibility in some aspects when compared to the new (and still developing) cloud computing applications. Conclusion According to Otey (2010), determining the future of cloud computing cannot be done in a definite pattern based on the ever-changing arena of technology. Nonetheless, most of the studies done, in regard to cloud computing, tend to offer positive prospects. A good example here is a report by Bechtolsheim (2008, p. 4) which prospects the size of cloud computing to shoot up from $16 billion documented in 2008 to $42 billion in 2012. Many other researchers also foresee a better future for cloud computing. Anderson et al. (2010) also reports that an internet survey conducted recently indicates that by the year 2020, cloud computing will have greatly helped in improving the access of information via remote servers, instead of housed tools like personal computers. In addition, this report by A nderson et al. says that the access of software and other related applications will also be hugely improved by cloud computing. A good example of such cloud computing services is the proliferated use of social networks like Facebook and twitter in sharing information while also being able to effectively communicate and network with one another. In addition, there is an increased use of laptops, desktop computers and Smartphones to connect to remote servers and access or retrieve crucial information. However, if the above fore-sights are to be ultimately actualized, then there are some necessary changes that need to be put in place—especially in regard to the challenging issues. For example, Anderson et al. (2010) says that the reliance on remote servers—which is most likely to occur due to the expected dominance of cloud computing—calls for expert and dependable personnel to gate-keep the information getting in and out of the remote servers. Also, the devices co ntrolling these clouds must be hugely effective to avoid problems in the access and sharing of data or information. To this regard, people have to well-trained and acclimatized to the intricacies of cloud computing while relevant devices are put in place. It is only by considering such measures that we can be ultimately be assured of a good future in cloud computing. Commendably, many IT experts are currently working around the clock to enhance this change. An example here is the shift from internal and external types of computing to the more effective hybrid cloud type (Lovell, n.d., p. 5). More effort is required from all of us if this change is to take place. Transitioning to cloud computing is already taking with several organizations already having integrated it into their computing systems (Kontio, 2009). As for the skeptics who did not know of which way to follow; this research provides you with the information to push you forward. Personally, I would encourage you to use thi s valuable method of computing. But then again, you are still entitled to make your own independent decision. Remarkably, it is crucial to note that the primary step in ensuring that you have a fitting cloud computing model is by choosing the right service provider. As was earlier mentioned, the technology market is flooded with rogue vendors and you should therefore do a thorough research and a lot of cross-checking before choosing a service provider. Only after that should you make your decisions. According to (Lovell, n.d., p. 5) examples of some well-acknowledge vendors include: Amazon, Salesforce.com, ThinkGrid, and Flexiscale. This list is, however, incomplete and more research to find other cloud computing vendors needs to be done since there are thousands of them in existence across the globe. A summary of the key aspects and examples of cloud computing is given below. Aspect of Cloud Computing Example Applications / SaaS Google Documents, Salesforce, LinkedIn, Facebook Platform Service Providers Google App Engine, Google Base, Ms Azure, SpringCM, Etelos, Box.net, Apprenda SaaSGrid, Force.com, Oracle SaaS Platform, Amazon SimpleDB, Amazon S3, TrackVia, Bungee Labs Connect. Infrastructure IBM Blue Cloud, Amazon EC2, Joyent, SunGrid, Integration Amazon SQS, Mule OnDemand, Microsoft Biztalk Services, OpSource Connect, Orchestration Intensil, ProcessMaker, Skemma, Appian Anywhere, OpenID, VMWare, Ping Identity, Elastra Cloud Server List of References Amrhein, D., Quint, S. (2009). Cloud computing for the enterprise: part 1: capturing the cloud. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/websphere/techjournal/0904_amrhein/0904_amrhein.html Armbrust, M., Fox, A., Griffith, R., Joseph, A., Katz, R., Konwinski, A., et al. (2010). A view of cloud computing. Communications of the ACM, 53(4), 50-58. Anderson, J. Q., Elon University., Rainie, L. (2010). The future of cloud computing. Retrieved from http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1623/future-clo ud-computing-technology-experts Bechtolsheim, A. (2008). Cloud computing. Retrieved from http://netseminar.stanford.edu/seminars/Cloud.pdf Boss, G., Malladi, P., Quan D., Legregni, L., Hall, H. (2007). High performance on demand solutions (HiPODS). Retrieved from download.boulder.ibm.com/ibmdl/†¦/Cloud_computing_wp_final_8Oct.pdf Brynjolfsson, E., Hofmann, P., Jordan, J. (2010). Cloud computing and electricity: beyond the utility model. Communications of the ACM, 53(5), 32-34. Chaganti, P. (2008). Cloud computing with Amazon web services, part 1: introduction. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/ar-cloudaws1/ Cloud Computing. (n.d.). In encyclopedia Wikinvest. Retrieved from http://www.wikinvest.com/concept/Cloud_Computing Durkee, D. (2010). Why Cloud Computing Will Never Be Free. Communications of the ACM, 53(5), 62-69. IBM. (n.d.). New to cloud computing? Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/cloud/newto.html Jones, T, M. (2008). Cloud comput ing with Linux. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-cloud-computing/ Kontio, M. (2009). Architectural manifesto: An introduction to the possibilities (and risks) of cloud computing. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/ar-archman10/ Lovell, R. (n.d.). Think grid: introduction to cloud computing. Retrieved from http://www.thinkgrid.com/docs/computing-whitepaper.pdf Maitland, J. (2010). Cloud computing concerns slowing widespread adoption. Retrieved from http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/generic/0,295582,sid201_gci1378175,00.html Metzler, J. (2009). A Guide for understanding cloud computing. Retrieved from www.bluecoat.com/doc/12437 Miller, R. (2008). What’s in a name? Utility vs. cloud vs grid. Retrieved from http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2008/03/25/whats-in-a-name-utility-vs-cloud-vs-grid/ Muglia, B. (n.d.). An industry shift toward cloud computing. Retrieved from www.ict.com.qa/pdf/CloudComputing.pdf Mye rson, J. (2009). Cloud computing versus grid computing. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/web/library/wa-cloudgrid/ Otey, M. (2010).The rise of cloud computing. Retrieved from http://www.windowsitpro.com/article/cloud-computing2/The-Rise-of-Cloud-Computing.aspx Owens, D. (2010). Securing elasticity in the cloud. Communications of the ACM, 53(6), 46-51. Ryan, W., Loeffler, C. (2010). Insights into cloud computing. Intellectual Property Technology Law Journal, 22(11), 22-28. Strickland, J. (n.d.). How cloud computing works. Retrieved from www.communication.howstuffworks.com/cloud-computing.htm Waxe, C. (2008). The essential guide to cloud computing. Retrieved from http://www.webhostingunleashed.com/features/essential-guide-cloud-computing/ Wittow, M., Buller, D. (2010). Cloud computing: emerging legal issues for access to data, anywhere, anytime. Journal of Internet Law, 14(1), 1-10. Zhen, J. (2008). Five key challenges of enterprise cloud computing. Retrieved from h ttp://cloudcomputing.sys-con.com/node/659288 Appendix Logical Architectural Diagrams of Cloud Computing Diagram 1: How the Cloud Works Webgranth. (n.d.). A complete reference to cloud computing. Retrieved from http://www.webgranth.com/a-complete-reference-to-cloud-computing Diagram 2: Relationship between the Elements of Cloud Computing Decker, K. (2010). What Joni Mitchell might say about cloud computing. Retrieved from http://decker.com/blog/2010/05/what-joni-mitchell-might-say-about-cloud-computing/ This research paper on Cloud Computing was written and submitted by user Bowen P. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Cloud Computing

The Life Cycle of Butterflies and Moths

The Life Cycle of Butterflies and Moths All members of the order Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths, progress through a four-stage life cycle, or complete metamorphosis. Each stage- egg, larva, pupa, and adult- serves a purpose in the insects development and life. Egg (Embryonic Stage) Once she has mated with a male of the same species, a female butterfly or moth will deposit her fertilized eggs, usually on plants that will serve as food for her offspring. This marks the beginning of the life cycle. Some, like the monarch butterfly, deposit eggs singly, scattering their progeny among the host plants. Others, such as the eastern tent caterpillar, lay their eggs in groups or clusters, so the offspring remain together for at least the early part of their lives. The length of time required for the egg to hatch is dependent on the species, as well as environmental factors. Some species lay winter-hardy eggs in the fall, which hatch the following spring or summer. Larva (Larval Stage) Once development within the egg is completed, a larva hatches from the egg. In butterflies and moths, we also call the larvae (plural of larva) by another name- caterpillars. In most cases, the first meal the caterpillar eats will be its own eggshell, from which it gains essential nutrients. From then on, the caterpillar feeds on its host plant. The newly hatched larva is said to be in its first instar. Once it grows too big for its cuticle, it must shed or molt. The caterpillar may take a break from eating as it prepares to molt. Once it does, it has reached its second instar. Often, it will consume its old cuticle, recycling the protein and other nutrients back into its body. Some caterpillars look just the same, only bigger, each time they reach a new instar. In other species, the change in appearance is dramatic, and the caterpillar may seem to be an entirely different kind. The larva continues this cycle- eat, poop, molt, eat, poop, molt- until the caterpillar reaches its final instar and prepares to pupate. Caterpillars readying for pupation often wander from their host plants, in search of a safe place for the next stage of their lives. Once a suitable site is found, the caterpillar forms a pupal skin, which is thick and strong, and sheds its final larval cuticle. Pupa (Pupal Stage) During the pupal stage, the most dramatic transformation occurs. Traditionally, this stage has been referred to as a resting stage, but the insect is far from at rest, in truth. The pupa does not feed during this time, nor can it move, though a gentle touch from a finger may yield an occasional wiggle from some species. Butterflies in this stage are chrysalides and moths in this stage are cocoons. Within the pupal case, most of the caterpillar body breaks down through a process called histolysis. Special groups of transformative cells, which remained hidden and inert during the larval stage, now become the directors of the bodys reconstruction. These cell groups, called histoblasts, initiate biochemical processes which transform the deconstructed caterpillar into a viable butterfly or moth. This process is called histogenesis, from the Latin words histo, meaning tissue, and genesis, meaning origin or beginning. Once the metamorphosis within the pupal case is completed, the butterfly or moth may remain at rest until the appropriate trigger signals the time to emerge. Changes in light or temperature, chemical signals, or even hormonal triggers may initiate the adults emergence from the chrysalis or cocoon. Adult (Imaginal Stage) The adult, also called the imago, emerges from its pupal cuticle with a swollen abdomen and shriveled wings. For the first few hours of its adult life, the butterfly or moth will pump hemolymph into the veins in its wings to expand them. The waste products of metamorphosis, a reddish liquid called meconium, will be discharged from the anus. Once its wings are fully dried and expanded, the adult butterfly or moth can fly in search of a mate. Mated females lay their fertilized eggs on appropriate host plants, beginning the life cycle anew.

A Private High School in Ohio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Private High School in Ohio - Essay Example Nordonia High School is an independent English language, American-model secondary school that offers American high school curriculum in mathematics, social and natural sciences, English and Macedonian language and literature, foreign languages, fine and performing arts, and physical education. Nordonia’s campus includes over twenty classrooms and laboratories, a technology center, art, drama and music studios, an auditorium, a library, a full-service cafeteria, a bookstore and a fitness center. At presently Nordonia High School has one computer lab and library in which 20 computers are kept for students. Besides these, there is one computer for the professor and one printer for general purpose use in the computer lab is kept and three computers and one printer are there in the library for library staffs and librarian. All the classes have a computer for teaching purpose for professors and are connected to LAN. In all the classes there are also certain plug-ins so that any students can connect their laptops to LAN for using the school resources. There are also four administrative offices in Nordonia High School that contains four computers and a printer. Nordonia High School also has two old IBM servers for providing DHCP, saving files, security, internet access, and Backup purpose. The present network (LAN system) of the Nordonia High School is installed more than 6 years ago, and now the management wants it to modernize, therefore, hardware, as well as software technological enhancement, will be done for Nordonia High School. Also, one computer lab is not sufficient for school; therefore one additional computer lab is also needed for Nordonia High School.  

A Right to Bear Glocks by Gail Collins Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Right to Bear Glocks by Gail Collins - Article Example The writer is not ready to blame Loughner alone for this incident; she indirectly mentions that the mentality of the Americans who think it is necessary to have free access to weapons is to be changed. Otherwise, there should be clear distinction between the kind of weapons citizens can bear for self-protection and lethal weapons of mass killing. However, the writer points out how frightened the American political workers and the government are to campaign against the all-powerful National Rifle Association. The title of the article ‘The Right to Bear Glocks’ is highly metaphorical in nature. In one way, it can be defined as the writer asking if the right to arms means the right to bear lethal weapons like Glocks. In another way, it can be defined as the writer mocking at the right to ‘have’ arms as the right to ‘tolerate’ arms. To show how the concept of democracy is misused, the writer narrates the fate of a nine-year-old girl who had recently been elected to the student council at her school. She attended the campaign to learn ‘how democracy worked’ met a   tragic death. In this article, the writer wants to show how a population suffers the perils of their own craze for weapons. Gabrielle Giffords herself was an avid supporter of the right to weapons and by narrating her fate, the writer wants to point out the biblical ideology of ‘all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword’ (Mat 26:52). In addition, another concept the writer indirectly implies is the way innocent people are affected by the actions of others. The writer says proper rules and regulations could have saved the lives of many people including a church volunteer and a nine-year-old child.  

Gender and Leadership Style

Gender and Leadership Style Introduction Leadership has had a great impact on the culture, history, and civilization of humankind, thus theoretical explanations for it have been extended throughout the history. Although the term leadership is mostly related with industry and business, it is important to education as well. Therefore it is vital to understand the role of leaders in education and to investigate the impact of gender on leadership style. Despite the large number of female teachers across all levels (i.e. primary, secondary, tertiary), leadership positions are still held mainly by men. Cooper et al. (2000) stated that qualified women educators provide important resource for meeting current and impending school leadership shortages but are often ignored. Meanwhile Young and McLeod (2001) identified that womens entrance into educational leadership will depends on their career aspirations, their leadership orientations or styles, the particular exposure to transformational leadership, their experiences, and the support they gain when entering administration. This section will include early leadership theories, the roles of school leader, relationship between leadership and gender, female leadership styles, differences between leadership styles of men and women, gender stereotypes, prejudice against female leaders and the summary of this chapter. Early Leadership Theories In the early 18th centuries, philosophers recommended a theory of leadership which was termed the Great Man theory. According to Jani (2008), this theory assumed that leaders are born and not made. Whereby leaders usually were members from the aristocracy since they only got a chance to lead; hence, it was considered that good breeding contributed to great leaders. Besides that, this theory also states that when there is a great need, then a great leader arises, like Buddha, Jesus, Churchill and Eisenhower. During that era, women were not taken into account as possible leaders. Even from the name given to this theory illustrates that women were not perceived as leaders, and leadership research during this period were related solely to males. Trait theories were introduced in the year 1904 and were well known up to 1947 (Bass, 1990). This theory assumed that people are born with inherited traits whereby some traits are particularly suited to leadership. It is believed that people who make good leaders have the right combination of traits. And once again, these traits were thought to be inborn, and unique to leaders. Trait theories basically described traits in masculine terms, and these characteristics were considered crucial for successful leadership. In the 1900s, small numbers of women began to enter the workforce. However, only very small proportions of women took up leadership positions in the 1940s. Typically, women were seen as carers, assistants, teachers, or nurses rather than leaders during this period of time (Koziara et al., 1987). Therefore, females were not seen as appropriate in the role of leadership. Soon after the 1940s, researchers began to propose that traits alone were not sufficient to explain effective leadership. They proposed that the interaction of leaders and followers, as well as other situational factors, may be a significant factor in effective leadership. At this stage, leaders were no longer considered to possess inborn characteristics and abilities hence Gardner (1989) proposed a new way of conceptualizing leadership. He said that men learn to lead therefore there is no one that are born to be a leader. This philosophy lead to the behavioural theories of leadership in the 1930s and the perspective began to move from a belief in the inborn characteristics of leaders, to a focus on behaviour which could be acquired or learned. There were four main behavioural studies conducted in conjunction with this theory. Firstly, the University of Iowa researchers which isolated three behavioural dimensions; these were the democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire styles. Secondly, a study by Ohio State University in the 1940s and 1950s. They advanced this body of thought by dividing the behavioural theories into two dimensions which they termed consideration and initiating structure. Consideration was explained as being considerate towards followers ideas and feelings while initiating structure referred to structuring work relationship to meet job goals. The third study was conducted by the University of Michigan which described employee oriented and production oriented dimensions. The findings of this study concluded that employee-oriented employers promoted high group productivity and job satisfaction amongst their employees (Kahn and Katz, 1960). These concepts were extended in 1964, when Blake and Mouton proposed a Managerial Grid. They proposed that by incorporating the two dimensions of concern for people and concern for production the most effective way of leading could be achieved (Blake and Mouton, 1964). All these behavioural theories were proposed in the early 1930s, but only achieved prominence in the 1960s at a time when the number of women in positions of power or authority in organisations were still low. The proportion of women in leadership roles in the USA in 1970, ten years after the behavioural theories were introduced, was only 16 per cent. Moreover, this percentage of women involved in a leadership role was reported to be constant for over a decade (Powell, 1999). However, during this period of research, there was an emerging recognition of the importance of concern for people in the behavioural theories as being an effective leadership quality. A concern for people could be seen as behaviour more typically associated with female. Subsequently, the leadership theories moved on to embrace both individual traits and situational aspects of leadership simultaneously (Bass, 1990). Successful leadership was considered to be dependent on the leaders consideration of situational factors in order for an appropriate leadership style to be chosen to cope with each situation. This theory assumes that the action of a leader depends on a number of situational factors, such as motivation and capability of followers, relationship between the leader and the followers, stress, mood, and etc. Yukl (1989) has identified six situational factors namely, subordinate effort, subordinate ability, organization of the work, cooperation and cohesiveness, resources and support, and external coordination. Situational theories would have predominantly been seen as applying to males in leadership roles because of the low profile of women in management during that time, and it can be assumed that the profile of women in management would not h ave been advanced in any significant way from this body of literature. Additional theories began to be available with mostly focused on the specific leadership styles of leaders, in an attempt to increase the understanding of what constituted effective leadership. These concepts relating to leadership styles were introduced in 1938 by Lewin and Lippitt. They suggested that leaders vary in the way they led in organisations. They proposed three styles of leadership. Firstly, autocratic leaders were originally described as leaders who used their power and their ability to persuade in leading their followers. An autocratic leader was also illustrated as a directive leader. The autocratic style of leadership was not been associated with female gender stereotypical characteristics. The second leadership style was named democratic leadership. This style was explained as a style whereby the leader pursued an open and follower oriented relationship. Leaders who take on this style encouraged followers to establish their own strategies, provided them with a perspective by explaining in advance the procedures for accomplishing the goals, and granted the followers independence to commence their own tasks and congratulating them if they succeed. According to Bass (1990), this leadership style originated from America, and leaders adopting this style were described as caring, considerate, and easy to compromise. This is the first kind of research which was seen to be more favourably aligned to feminine characteristics as compared to masculine characteristics. However, as mentioned previously, during the era when leadership style theories reached prominence, there were still limited women holding leadership positions. As research on gender difference in leadership styles did not occur until 1990, it would appear that the theories on leadership styles would have been written to illustrate male behaviour in leadership roles. Nevertheless, it could be argued that the theories on leadership styles began to raise the profile of women in leadership. This early leadership research may have changed insights about the suitability of women in leadership positions, as a democratic style of leadership could be attributed to both male and female leaders. The third leadership style was described as laissez-faire leadership. The term laissez-faire means to let others act without interference or better known as the hands off style. Laissez-faire leaders were thought to have less confidence in their decision-making responsibility, or in their capability to manage, often avoiding meeting with their subordinates (Bass, 1990). Similar to previous theories, these researches was studied in a male context, probably because of the small numbers of women in leadership roles at that time. In short, all of the theories reviewed portrayed leadership implicitly or explicitly as a male prerogative, and the small numbers of women in leadership positions during the respective periods confirms that the role of leaders was largely seen as a male domain. Not unpredictably, all the researchers and writers on early leadership were men and hence the years of leadership research reflect a male dominance. Denmark (1993), reflected that by ignoring gender as a variable in studying leadership, researchers created many blanks in theoretical and research design. However, gender has begun to be a consideration in the literature in the late 1970s. Gender difference research began to report on differences in behaviour, attitudes, and skills between males and females in general and was subsequently extended to consider abilities such as leadership. The Roles of School Leaders The role of the school leader in successful schools has gone beyond the traditional view of functional management, power, behaviour style, and instructional leadership. In the past, the job of school leader was considered as primarily managerial, however nowadays the realities of our global society have shifted the focus from management to leadership. According to Kowalski, (2003) an effective school administrator typically must be both a manager and a leader. Todays school leaders face more complex expectations. They face a very different student population. At a time when many view the schools as one of the few social organizations, students arrive with very different attitudes, motivations, and needs than students of todays generations (Young and Kochan, 2004). International research indicates that successful schools have leaders who creates a productive and professional school culture (Stoll, 1999), have a clear vision (Fullan, 2003), are knowledgeable about teaching and learning (Wesson and Grady, 1993) and protect schools from demands that make it difficult for schools to operate on a professional basis (Normore, 2004). As for school leaders in less successful schools, they seem to view their role to be more that of a middle manager. While leaders in highly successful schools perceive themselves as educational leaders (Normore, 2004) who contribute to school improvement and school effectiveness (Mortimore and MacBeath, 2001). Effective school leaders are vital to change and improvement, and are clear on expectations for student learning (Fullan, 2003). Expectations of nowadays school leaders include new knowledge and skill for instructional leadership, discipline, supervision, fundraising, and public relations expertise (Shuttleworth, 2003). More responsibility has been added to the job over the years causing some of the best school leaders to slow down until the extent that they have lost much of their leadership, rather than management quality (Normore, 2004; Shuttleworth, 2003; Simkins, 2003). Relationship between Leadership and Gender According to Oshagbemi and Gill (2003), the relationship between gender role and leadership style is the association of masculinity with task-oriented leadership styles and femininity with relationship-oriented styles. This relationship is not so precise for women. Jamieson developed the concept of femininity and masculinity in the year 1995 where behaving feminine is associated with incompetence and behaving masculine is associated with competency. If the masculine model represents the general and dominant model of leadership, women understand that in order to escalate the ranks they have to conform to it (Fernandes and Cabral-Cardoso, 2003). In other words, the same influence strategies that proved to be successful for men are continually used by women too. The main strategy is to develop behaviors feminine enough not to diverge from the gender role expectation, but masculine enough to gain credibility as professionals; in simple terms, women have to create their own leadership sty les. As Gardner (1995) said Leadership is never guaranteed; it must always be renewed. Female Leadership Styles Earlier thinking emphasized that women who had reached leadership positions were imitators of male characteristics, but contemporary theories recognize feminine leadership styles. Like any new trend in traditional settings, it takes years to develop new styles until these styles are understood and well accepted. Women face several barriers that prevent them from involving in leadership positions. Obstacles with this origin have been described as the glass ceiling as a metaphor that halts women in moving up the career ladder at a certain point (Oakley, 2000). Nonetheless, the increasing involvement of women in the labor market in the last half century, and their movement to managerial positions has changed the definition of leadership (Kark, 2004). Rosener (1990) believed that female leadership tends towards a style defined as interactive leadership that involves: encouraging participation; sharing power and information; enhancing self-worth; changing self interests for an overall good; relating power to interpersonal skills; and believing in better performance when feeling good. Women leaders in education need to find the leadership styles that, without denying its feminine origins, result in efficiency. The redefinition of characteristics of an effective school leader, following the current trends of organizational leadership, will help erase gender stereotypes and focus on desirable characteristics that candidates (men or women) bring to the position (Logan, 1998). Differences in the Leadership Styles of Men and Women One possible explanation of gender gap in leadership is that women are deficient in the characteristics and behaviors that are crucial to effective leadership. However, contrary to the idea that women are less suited to leadership than men, Eagly, Alice H., and Marloes L. van Engen (2004) have described female leaders as having cooperative, interactive, and facilitative leadership styles that are more attuned to the needs of modern organizations than the leadership styles that of men. Empirical research has observed such claims about the typical leadership styles of men and women. To determine whether men and women differ in leadership styles, Alice Eagly and Blair Johnson (2004) carried out a meta-analysis of 162 studies that were conducted between 1961 and 1987. Most of these studies distinguished between task-oriented leadership (a style that emphasizes subordinates to follow rules and procedures, maintaining high standards of performance, and making roles explicit) and interpersonally oriented leadership (a style that emphasizes helping subordinates, looking out for their welfare, explaining procedures, and being friendly and available). Besides that, some studies distinguished between leaders who behave democratically and invite subordinates to participate in decision making, known as participative or democratic leadership, and leaders who behave autocratically and discourage subordinates from participating in decision making, known directive or autocratic le adership. Eagly and Johnsons meta-analysis found that the leadership styles of women and men were somewhat stereotypical. In these laboratory and assessment studies, women, more than men, tended to manifest relatively towards interpersonally oriented styles, and men, more than women, tended to display relatively task-oriented styles. In contrast, gender differences in task and interpersonal style were insignificant among leaders occupying managerial roles in organizations. These findings were consistent with the principle that gender differences are lower among managers because male and female managers are selected by similar criteria and subjected to similar organizational socialization. However, in all these studies, one difference did consistently appear: Women leaders displayed a somewhat more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than men did. In the twenty-three studies comparing men and women on the democratic versus autocratic dimension, 92 percent went in the direction of a more democratic and participative style among women. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers identified a type of leadership style that is commonly known as transformational leadership, which is similar to contemporary models of leadership known as visionary, charismatic, and inspirational. The importance of these models is on the ability of the leaders to inspire, stimulate, and motivate followers and to nurture their ability to contribute creatively to the organizational goals. Transformational leadership are differ from transactional leadership, which is a more conventional style that stresses clarifying subordinate responsibilities and using rewards and punishments to encourage subordinates to meet objectives of the organization. Also acknowledged by some researchers is laissez-faire style that is characterized by a general failure to take responsibility for managing or better known as the hands off style. To determine whether male and female leaders differ when evaluated in terms of these new distinctions, Eagly, along with social psychologists Mary Johannesen-Schmidt and Marloes van Engen, carried out a meta-analysis of 45 studies that compared male and female managers on the measures of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. These studies involved organizational leaders, mainly from business and educational organizations. The meta-analysis revealed that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also exceeded male leaders on one component of transactional leadership which is contingent reward behaviors, which consist of rewarding subordinates for doing a good job. Women also exceeded men on the transformational dimension of individualized consideration, which relates to developing and mentoring followers. In contrast, men were more likely than women to display two other aspects of transactional leadership which are active management by ex ception and passive management by exception. Active management by exception refers to attending to followers mistakes and failures to meet standards, while passive management by exception refer to waiting until problems become severe before attending to them. Men, more than women, also displayed laissez-faire leadership, which means they are uninvolved during critical moment. In summary, research has established some small differences in the behavior of male and female leaders. Specifically, women tend to be more democratic and less autocratic than men, a difference that does not yield an overall advantage for either gender. More important for effectiveness are womens tendencies to engage in transformational style and to deliver more rewards for followers good performance. These behaviors have been related with enhanced effectiveness across a wide variety of settings. Consequently, empirical research does not support the thought that the leadership styles of women account for their lesser success in rising into higher-level of leadership positions. Gender Stereotypes Women have traditionally been stereotyped as more socially sensitive and interpersonally competent than men (Korabik 1999). In various studies, the traditional stereotype of women included attributes such as being less competent and less effective in tasks that are required for work outside of home (Glick and Fiske 1999), nurturing, compassionate, considerate, weak, and subservient (Bem 1974), and emotional, subjective, tactful, aware of others feelings, and having feelings that are easily hurt (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). Stereotypes linked with men, on the other hand, typically included traits such as leaders, dominant, aggressive, independent, objective, and competitive (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). These gender stereotypes broaden into almost every facet of daily life for both men and women. People interpret communications and speech characteristics through gender stereotypes (Tannen 1990, 2001). Research has also demonstrated that gender stereotypes regarding communication patterns and styles develop early and continue on through adulthood. Other aspects of interpersonal interactions are subjected to gender stereotypes as well. Eagly and Karau (1991) demonstrated that overall, men were perceived as being more capable and were more readily accepted as leaders when they acted in a confident and assertive manner. Although the nature of the task moderated this relationship, men were more likely than women to be thought of as leaders (Eagly and Karau 1991). For women, the same qualifications of assertiveness and confidence could be harmful when they are faced with traditional gender stereotypes. Carli and Eagly (1999) in their summary of the research on influence and leadership emergence highlighted the barriers that faces by women in leadership. Studies conducted in the United States have demonstrated that self-efficacy and self-promotion are beneficial in hiring and promotion practices for men. However, women who engaged in these behaviors as undesirable (Rudman 1998). Therefore, gender stereotypes play a critical role in limiting the opportunities for women to emerge as leaders by decreasing womens access to leadership roles and increasing the obstacles they must overcome in order to become leaders (Eagly and Karau 2002). When women and men leaders behaviors and styles are reviewed, typically one of these paradigms is employed. Eagly and Johnsons (1990) meta-analysis research demonstrated that across studies, no difference was found in the perception of men and women leaders. However, they did report a small but significant finding in which women leaders were perceived as being more participative as compare to their men counterparts. They also highlighted that the source of the perception (self or subordinates) may play an important role on the results. In addition, factors such as the gender of the author, the type of study, and the date of the study had some moderating effects on the results. More recently, Eagly and colleagues have reported meta-analytic results regarding the role of leaders gender in transactional and transformational leadership styles (Eagly, Johannesen-Schimdt, van Engen, and Vinkenburg 2003). These studies found that women leaders, when compared to the males, were perceived as slightly but significantly more likely to engage in transformational behaviors. They also found that men leaders, when compared to the women leaders, were perceived as more transactional leaders. Therefore, it could be concluded that men and women are perceived somewhat differently due to the presence of traditional gender stereotypes. Prejudices against Female Leaders Prejudice against women as leaders is at least partly responsible for the lack of women in leadership positions. Prejudice arises because peoples common views about what a manager or a leader is like do not fit their ideas about women as well as they fit their ideas about men. This inconsistency can be examined in terms of social roles of women, men, and leaders. These role expectations are called descriptive because they indicate what behaviors members of a particular social category might display. Role expectations are also called injunctive because they include consensual expectations about what group members ideally should do. Gender roles are understood as socially shared beliefs about the typical attributes of women and men. According to social role theory, these roles emerge from the societal division of labor between the genders. The underlying principle is that the perceivers infer that peoples actions tend to correspond to their internal dispositions, a cognitive process that has been labeled correspondent inference or correspondence bias. Specifically, the common, nurturing behaviors required by womens domestic and child-care roles and by many female-dominated occupational roles favor inferences that women do possess and should possess common traits. Similarly, the confident, task-oriented activities required by many male-dominated occupations and the breadwinner family role create expectations that men do possess and should possess agentic traits, such as unselfishness, concern for others, and expressiveness, as well as traits such as masterfulness, self-assuredness, and instrumental competency. In general, prejudice in the workplace may arise from the irregularity people perceive between particular workplace roles and the attributes attributed to individuals based on their group membership. Most leadership roles are characterized primarily by agentic attributes and are therefore different with the predominantly common characteristics attributed to women. Although it might seem that gender should be irrelevant in the workplace, it spills over to affect opinions of employees. The resulting incongruity of the female gender role and leadership roles leads not only to decreased prospect that women can be successful leaders, but also to less favorable evaluations of leadership when it is enacted by a woman compared with a man, as shown in many studies that were summarized by Eagly and social psychologist Steven Karau in 2002. Several types of research have shown that women have fewer accesses to leadership roles than men do. Economist Joyce Jacobsens review showed that most studies of actual income and promotion supported the claim of discrimination against women in general and female managers in particular, albeit on a decreasing basis over the years. As shown in a meta-analysis by psychologists Heather Davison and Michael Burke, experiments in which participants evaluated female and male job candidates who were experimentally equated supported the narrower claim of prejudice as a disadvantage for women in relation to male gendertyped positions, which would include most leadership roles. Other studies, such as those by sociologist Martha Foschi, showed that women usually have to meet higher standard to be judged as being competent and possessing leadership ability. In addition, Eagly and Karaus 1991 meta-analysis demonstrated that it is usually less likely that women emerge as leaders in groups, especial ly if the groups task is not particularly demanding of interpersonal skill or is otherwise relatively masculine. Research also has proved the prediction that women have more obstacles to overcome in becoming successful in leadership roles. Specifically, as demonstrated in a meta-analysis by Alice Eagly, Steven Karau, and social psychologist Mona Makhijani, studies of leaders effectiveness, it demonstrated that leaders performed less effectively when the leader role that they occupied was incongruent with their gender role. Women suffered diminished outcomes in roles given especially with masculine definitions, and men suffered somewhat diminished outcomes in roles given with more feminine definitions. As shown in a meta-analysis by Alice Eagly, Mona Makhijani, and social psychologist Bruce Klonsky, more definitive support emerged in an experimental research paradigm that removed possible differences in the leadership behavior of women and men by comparing this behavior. More ultimate support emerged in an experimental research framework that removed possible differences in the leadership behavi or of women and men by equating this behavior. In these studies women fared slightly less well than men did. More important, just as in studies on leaders effectiveness, women fared less well than men did when leader roles were male dominated and when men served as evaluators. In synopsis, pressures to female leaders come from two directions: Conforming closely to their gender role would produce a failure to meet the requirements of their leader role, and conforming closely to their leader role would produce a failure to meet the requirements of their gender role. The latter pressure can result in the prejudicial outcome of receiving lesser rewards for appropriate leader behavior than an equivalent man would receive. In this sense, female leaders face more challenges not encountered by male leaders, especially in leadership roles that are defined in relatively masculine terms. Chapter Summary In conclusion, the outlook for womens involvement in leadership in the twenty-first century is promising as more women enter leadership roles in industrialized nations and thereby reduce the difference between peoples beliefs about women and about leaders. Furthermore, organizations gain from giving women equal access to leader roles, not only because evidence shows that women are at least as effective as men, but also because gender equality increases the pool of potential candidates from which leaders are chosen.